Hypothesis of the Pronunciation Words

Hypothesis of the Pronunciation Words Initial Hypothesis Critique An analysis of the hypothesis people pronounce words differently depending on how the words are presented reveals several problems that would prevent a researcher from successfully completing a concise and adequate research report. First off, the hypothesis itself is far too generalized, the statement pronounced differently neglects to specify the degree of difference that would result from having a subject pronounce a certain set of words.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Hypothesis of the Pronunciation Words specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More For example, differently can encompass diction, dialect, slowly, quickly, incoherently, coherently, whether a person is an ESL student or not as well as a whole slew of dozens of possible alternatives in how a text can be pronounced. It encompasses far too many possible variables that it would be impossible if not highly improbable that a researcher w ould be able to create a report that encompasses all possible amalgamations related to the term differently. Secondly, the phrase how it is presented is ambiguous and creates a similar problem to the previously examined statement. A certain piece of text can be presented in what can only be dozens if not hundreds of possible methods. For example, it can be embedded within a paragraph, made into a list of words, be translated into a different language, utilize local dialects, placed nearer or farther away from the student or be presented in a hardcopy or softcopy format. From this it can be seen that the term how it is presented is far to ambiguous in that it cannot be sufficiently utilized in a research report since it can be interpreted in any manner of ways, all of which would be applicable given the generalized nature of the previously aforementioned text. Based on the examination of the initial hypothesis, it can be seen that it is both highly ambiguous and far too generalized t o be adequate for a research report. What is needed in this particular case is a hypothesis that focuses on a specific subject and concise method of application in order to create a statement that leaves little confusion as to the type of examination that will be conducted. Revised Hypothesis People speak in a more prestigious form when reading from a list as opposed to a passage Evaluating the Revised Hypothesis Compared to the old hypothesis, the revised one is far less generalized and more specific in outlining the assumptions made by the researcher. For example, unlike the previous hypothesis which had the phrase pronounce words differently which could encompass any manner of different means and methods of pronunciation, the new hypothesis utilizes the term speak in a more prestigious form which is indicative of a specific way of speaking.Advertising Looking for report on languages? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This enables the researcher to immediately determine what course of examination to follow and what to look for when examining the research subjects for this project, unlike in the previous hypothesis which made it difficult for the researcher to determine what different method of pronunciation was to be examined. In the previous hypothesis the phrase on how the words are presented was utilized in order to indicate the criteria to be utilized in the study. As mentioned before, this phrase is far too ambiguous and vague and can encompass any manner of potential criteria to be used. This vagueness has been addressed in the new hypothesis through the phrase when reading from a list as opposed to a passage which is indicative of a particular criteria to be utilized by the researcher in the examination of the prestigious form of pronunciation utilized by the research subjects. It is based on the various arguments and facts presented in this section that it can be seen that the new hypot hesis addresses the problems and concerns found in the initial hypothesis and as such would result in the creation of far more concise, direct and above all less ambiguous study as compared to what would have resulted from the previous hypothesis. Test Design The design for this particular project was actually quite simple, in order to accomplish the test for this hypothesis the researcher focused on how a few words are pronounced when presented in list form or when read from a passage. As such, this consisted of the researcher creating a list of the following words: â€Å"SOMETHING†,† LIFE†,† FORTH†, and â€Å"WATER† and placing them within a textual arrangement of various randomly chosen words in order to create a certain degree of variability to the test. Prior to the start of the experiment, the researcher had the assumption that people would pronounce these 4 words in a more prestigious pronunciation/form when reading them from a list as co mpared to the way they would be pronounced when read from a passage. The reason behind this is due to another assumption by the researcher that when reading from a list, words are more focused and isolated therefore people tend to pay more attention to their pronunciation thus resulting in a more prestigious form of speaking What is Prestigious Pronunciation? Prestigious pronunciation is the method in which a particular word or phrase is pronounced without an altered vernacular. Meaning that it is stated based on the way it is written, the way it appears on paper and the rote manner in which it is supposed to be pronounced based on established standards of pronouncing that particular word or phrase.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Hypothesis of the Pronunciation Words specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More From a certain perspective, it can be stated that prestigious pronunciation is the complete opposite of â€Å"slang † wherein grammatical rules pertaining to shortcuts, pop culture methods of stating that particular word or phrase and even commonly held (though at times incorrect) methods of statement are eschewed in favor of a â€Å"higher† form of word/phrase utilization (Lefkowitz Hedgcock, 2002: 223-344) Various studies have in fact observed that the utilization of prestigious forms of pronunciation are more often than not utilized by individuals of higher intellectual bearing or class (this constitutes individuals who are commonly known as â€Å"geeks†, are part of the academe, or those originating from a higher social standard). The reason behind this is due to their commonly held assumption that by speaking in this particular manner they distinguish themselves as being â€Å"superior† to a certain extent. On the other hand, other studies which have examined its usage state that its use is more commonly utilized in situations where a certain degree of professiona lism and academic competence needs to be established (i.e. by lawyers during court cases, the defense of a doctoral thesis, the presentation of study findings to an audience of peers etc.) Testing the Hypothesis Participants Within the Middlesex University community 20 random native English speaking participants were chosen in order to test out the hypothesis. The participants were not chosen based on either race, income status or any other distinguishing features rather the researcher made sure that all those involved had no association whatsoever with the researcher and were not briefed about the study prior to their involvement. This ensured that the results of the study were beyond reproach for being unduly influenced by the researcher beforehand. The individuals involved in this study were all asked to read from a prepared softcopy of relevant text for this study while their voices where recorded by the researcher. All research subjects were assured of their anonymity should th e research results be presented in a public forum (barring their voice being recognized by someone they know of course). Note* Only 20 participants were utilized for this particular study due to the limited time given by the University in order to gather the necessary research subjects and acquire the needed data. If more time had been given this study would have been able to accumulate at the very least 200 to 300 people which would have resulted in better research results given the diverse amount of data to work with. Unfortunately since an insufficient amount of time was given the researcher followed the indicated instructions given by the professor and did the best that could be done given the circumstances and the time constraints involved. Procedure The 20 research participants were all asked to read from both a passage and a set of enumerated text in order to determine the degree of â€Å"stress† given to a particular word. This was done as a means of examining whether they stated a word in a more â€Å"prestigious† manner (meaning that the degree of pronunciation has greater stress and far more emphasis) if it was presented to them in a list or in a passage.Advertising Looking for report on languages? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Note* The words in bold text seen in both the passage and the selection of text indicated below were not placed in bold font in the samples given to be read out by the research participants. They are merely in bold text for the benefit of the readers of this report and as such should be utilized as indicators as to the placement of the key words used in this study. The Passage that was given to the 20 participants to read it out was the following: â€Å"Nature is one of the beauties of life. The presence of ancient oak trees, the blossoming of wild flowers and fruits every forth-coming season is something we humans take for granted. Water is considered to be an essential nutrient for plants. Because of easy access, we take water for granted and do not realise the importance of proper hydration.† The selection of text read by the 20 participants: Sweet Table Pencil Flour Text LIFE Wall Chair Child FORTH Nature Shoes WATER Hair Dress SOMETHING Examination Procedures Once the researcher was able to gather all 20 audio recordings from the research participants an examination of the results was then conducted in order to determine the degree of stress or rather â€Å"prestige† placed on certain key words used within the experiment. Research Results â€Å"SOMETHING† read from the passage: 20% have read it in a prestigious pronunciation and 80% in non- prestigious pronunciation. â€Å"SOMETHING† read from the list: 40% have read it in a prestigious pronunciation and 60% in non- prestigious pronunciation. â€Å"LIFE† read from the passage: 45% have read it in a prestigious pronunciation and 55% in non- prestigious pronunciation. â€Å"LIFE† read from the list: 50% have read it in a prestigious pronunciation and 50% in non- prestigious pronunciation. â€Å"FORTH† read from the passage: 85% have read it in a prestigious pronunciation and 15% in non- prestigious pronunciation. â€Å"FORTH† read fro m the list: 95% have read it in a prestigious pronunciation and 5% in non- prestigious. â€Å"WATER† read from the passage: 15% have read it in a prestigious pronunciation and 85% in a non- prestigious. â€Å"WATER† read from the list: 35% have read it in a prestigious pronunciation and 65% in non- prestigious. Evaluation of Study Results As it can be seen in the result of this examination, the experiment showed that when presented with both a list and a passage most of the research subjects involved had a greater likelihood of pronouncing the words with prestige when they were placed within a list as compared to the instances where they were asked to read them from within a passage. As such, this validates the hypothesis indicated by the researcher and shows the accuracy of the earlier assumptions involving prestigious forms of pronunciation. One way of figuring out why this occurred is from the study of Simon Taverniers (2011) who indicated that pronouncing a set of words from a list is far less confusing for a reader as compared to those within a passage (Simon Taverniers, 2011: 896-922). The reason behind this is connected to the fact that readers need to take into account the varied intricacies involved in reciting a passage (commas, periods, shifting tenses, word agreements etc.) while at the same time having to determine the meaning behind the passage itself. This is also related to the fact that most people dont speak in a prestigious manner at all times due to social norms involving slang and shortcuts in speaking and as such they tend to fall into such habits when reading from a passage since this enables them to read and pronounce a select piece of text while at the same time internalize what they are reading (Laham, Koval, Alter, 2012: 752-756). When it comes to reading from a list, a reader doesnt need to concern himself/herself with internalizing the meaning behind a passage nor do they have to take into consideration the intri cacies involved with proper pacing, shifting of tenses, word agreements, comma, periods etc. Thus this enables them to slow down so to speak their method of thinking enabling them to better recognize particular words and say them in a manner that is in line with their â€Å"proper† method of pronunciation which is devoid of the non-prestigious methods commonly utilized in everyday conversations (Wieling, Margaretha, Nerbonne, 2012: 307-314). Critique of the Project Overall, I would have to say that while the outcome of this project was â€Å"sufficient†, in my opinion, there are numerous changes I would make if I had the opportunity to do so. Should I be given the option of starting this particular project again I would make sure that the university gave me enough time to actually obtain a sufficient amount of participants for the study. While 20 people were able to give me an adequate amount of data in order to comply with the requirements of the project, this amount of participants is insufficient given the fact that most studies of this particular nature have well over a 100 participants or more. The limited number of people used would call into question the validity of the study given the fact that a small research subject population ensures that only a limited number of possible study outcomes can be examined. Aside from the limited number of research participants, I would have liked to include more keywords into the project details with a far more varied amount of tenses, conjunctions and methods of pronunciation in order to see whether the results of â€Å"prestigious pronunciation† remained constant given a more varied word set. Furthermore, another experimental outcome I would have liked to test out would be if the way in which people heard a particular word pronounced via a recording would affect the way in which they themselves said it. This would involve having the participants first reading from a selection of words, then hea ring that same set of words from a recording and have them read the set of words again from the same paper. I anticipate that the addition of this particular aspect to the project would show that the way in which people hear words, despite their own internalized method of stating them, would affect the way in which such words are pronounced. Evaluation of Work When examining what has been done for this particular project, it is my opinion that despite the lack of sufficient research subjects the project was more or less a success since it was able to prove my hypothesis. Taking this into consideration, other possible paths this type of project could pursue in the future could entail an examination of how cultural influences (i.e. pop culture) influence the way in which prestige communication is utilized (Gibson, 2011: 603 – 626). For example, if a particular singer said a word in a particular way (ex: country singers from the U.S. extending the word â€Å"there† to abs urd degrees) would this also affect the way in which people utilize the word and if so would this be a temporary phenomena based on the popularity of the artist’s songs or would it continue to exist far beyond that? Reference List Gibson, A 2011, Flight of the Conchords: Recontextualizing the voices of popular culture1, Journal Of Sociolinguistics, 15, 5, pp. 603-626, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost. Laham, S, Koval, P, Alter, A 2012, The name-pronunciation effect: Why people like Mr. Smith more than Mr. Colquhoun, Journal Of Experimental Social Psychology, 48, 3, pp. 752-756, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost. Lefkowitz, N, Hedgcock, J 2002, Sound barriers: influences of social prestige, peer pressure and teacher (dis)approval on FL oral performance, Language Teaching Research, 6, 3, pp. 223-244, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost. Simon, E, Taverniers, M 2011, Advanced EFL Learners Beliefs about Language Learning and Teaching: A Comparison Between Grammar, Pronunciat ion, and Vocabulary, English Studies, 92, 8, pp. 896-922, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost. Wieling, M, Margaretha, E, Nerbonne, J 2012, Inducing a measure of phonetic similarity from pronunciation variation, Journal Of Phonetics, 40, 2, pp. 307-314, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost.

The Sub-prime Mortgage Market and Variable Rate Mortgage Market in the Essay

The Sub-prime Mortgage Market and Variable Rate Mortgage Market in the USA - Essay Example The subprime mortgage market can be considered as an extension of this lending practice prevalent in the housing market. Subprime mortgage loans carry interest rates much higher than the prime loans in order to cover the additional risk exposure of the lenders in extending credit to the borrowers who are considered to have a bad loan track and defaulters in repayments. With the increase in the subprime lending the rate of failures has also considerably increased, as most of the loans have been granted to those who did not have the adequate means to repay the loans. When such failures have reached a greater proportion, "Investors have started scrutinizing subprime loans more carefully and, in turn, lenders have tightened underwriting standard". Certain other measures including credit spreads over subprime securitizations have also been undertaken to control the rate of delinquencies. Different aspects of the subprime mortgage including the variable rate mortgage are discussed in the following sections of the report. The report also details the process of securitization being adopted by the mortgage originators to fund the growth in their mortgage lending. 2.0 What is Subprime Mortgage Although the term 'subprime mortgage' is used to indicate the loans offered to those borrowers whose credibility is doubtful, the term "subprime' does not signify the character of the loan itself but characterizes the borrower meaning the borrower has a substandard credit status. Lack of good credit history and habitual defaults in repayments make the borrowers to get into the status of sub prime borrowers. Subprime lending can take a variety of instruments like... As the report declares the subprime mortgage market can be considered as an extension of this lending practice prevalent in the housing market. Subprime mortgage loans carry interest rates much higher than the prime loans in order to cover the additional risk exposure of the lenders in extending credit to the borrowers who are considered to have a bad loan track and defaulters in repayments. With the increase in the subprime lending the rate of failures has also considerably increased, as most of the loans have been granted to those who did not have the adequate means to repay the loans. When such failures have reached a greater proportion, â€Å"Investors have started scrutinizing subprime loans more carefully and, in turn, lenders have tightened underwriting standard†. This paper stresses that lack of good credit history and habitual defaults in repayments make the borrowers to get into the status of sub prime borrowers. Subprime lending can take a variety of instruments like subprime mortgages, car loans and credit cards. The expansion in the sub-prime mortgage has made the home-ownership possible for those borrowers who otherwise would not be able to qualify for any borrowing. There has been a sharp increase in the subprime mortgage in the recent years. With the increase in the subprime mortgage market, the concerns over the adverse effects of the predatory loans have also increased.

Analysis of Whole Foods Inc Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Analysis of Whole Foods Inc - Essay Example Analyses used in this study are Five Forces, Life Cycle Assessment, Value Chain Analysis, SWOT, PEST, and 7S. Buyer power- Whole Foods faces a weak buyer power because buyers are fragmented and do not have the particular influence on product or price. Organic food is sold in different 14,500 supermarkets in the States, so buyers do not have a single power to be able to dictate their price on the retailers. But if we consider Whole Foods to be the buyer, then we can consider this company to have a very strong buyer power because it can purchase and command a price from direct suppliers, and can buy out the competition.   A threat of new entrants. The threat of new entrants to the industry is low because of the big amount of investment needed to compete in the industry. The average capital cost of opening a food market site amounted to $15.1 million in 2007, plus the inventory cost of $ 850,000. Whole Foods Market pre-opening expenses averaged $2.6 million for the 21 stores they have opened. It is doubtful whether the products of the small manufacturers can reach the same shelves as with Whole Foods.   A threat of substitutes. There is a low threat of substitute because of the growing concern of people on wellness products. Whole Foods succeeded in building a competitive advantage. Their prices are comparatively higher than conventional foods, but they have established a niche in the industry because of the perceived needs of costumers.   A threat of rivalry - There is a high degree of rivalry in the industry because of the emergence of competitors in the industry. The rivalry is intense because competitors like Fresh & Easy Neighborhood, Sunflower Farmers Market. Traders Joe and Fresh Market offered several competitive moves. Competitors applied innovations, features, and lower pricing, For instance, Fresh Market developed small markets with the feel and atmosphere of an open European style market.  

Free

Freedmen’s Bureau Act of 1865 Essay The Freedmen’s Bureau was a government agency enacted March 3, 1865. The purpose of this organization was to aid and protect the newly freed slaves in the south after the Civil War. This was a very influential agency and some people would find it to be a major influence in the life of newly freed slaves. In this paper I will explain to you the purpose, the events that led up to the Freedmen’s Bureau, and the people that influenced the Freedmen’s Bureau. The purpose of the bureau was to provide food and medical care to the freedmen of the south. This bureau was only supposed to be in effect for one year; however, congress extended it contrary to the veto Andrew Johnson. In addition to providing food and medical care to the freedmen of the south; the bureau also helped to manage abandon property, establish schools, and regulate labor. The bureau was successful in educating the freedmen, but was very unsuccessful in establishing land. It was very hard for the newly freed slaves to own land or anything for that manner and it took a very long time to establish anything major for them. Later on after the act was established the freedmen were granted 85,000 acres of land but President Andrew Johnson revoked the land and gave it to the Confederate landowners. After the land was revoked the bureau focused on employment for the freedmen. They were able to acquire employment working on plantations; however, this became a problem when they became sharecroppers and tenant farmers. The bureau had many problems but all in all they did work hard to help the newly freed slaves establish the rights that they weren’t able to obtain. The freedmen’s bureau was established on the sympathy of a Civil War hero. He felt sorry for the blacks that had to transition from captivity to freedom so suddenly. After President Johnson unconstitutionally vetoed the bill, congress passed the bill over his veto. Whites in the south were opposed to African Americans having rights, and the bureau didn’t have the proper military force in place to establish any authority. Eventually the military had the move to the western frontier. The bureau’s work stemmed the establishment of the government involving themselves with social welfare and labor relations. I will now explain the people that played a significant role in influencing and implementing the freedmen’s bureau. The freedmen’s bureau was initiated by former President Abraham Lincoln. It was also headed by Union Army General Oliver O. Howard. George Ruby was an African American teacher and administrator that was the bureau’s inspector. He helped to establish school for African Americans and he also inspected the field officer’s that worked within the bureau. Unfortunately under the leadership of President Ulysses S. Grant, the bureau was disbanded. According to history the freedmen’s bureau was not very successful. Out of all of the promises that were made to the newly freed African Americans, very few were kept. Essentially they were left to fend for themselves. Promises such as employment and some education were kept. The promises for land and racial equality were not kept and this enraged the supporters of the bureau and the African Americans themselves. If the bureau would have had the proper financial backing and the proper number of staff it probably would have been very successful. Being that the bureau let the freedmen down by not providing the necessary funds, land, and education they lost faith in the United States government. The bureau has been labeled a failure by historians. In essence the Freedmen’s Bureau was a relief organization set in place to help freedmen transition from slavery to the free world. Many promises such as land, employment, racial equality, and education were promised; but very few promises were kept. The bureau was underfunded and undermanned and the necessary resources hadn’t been set in place for it to thrive like it was supposed to.

Mind Deception :: Personal Narrative Abortion Descriptive Essays

Mind Deception I’m surrounded by the blatant screams of hatred as I am thrown from hand rail to hand rail on the steps of this large building. The People surrounding me are holding large signs and yelling chants as they throw trash at this structure before me. Signs scream death in red writing as if they were stabbed or ripped open like a wound. The noise has become numbing, and all I hear are footsteps and see hands flail in front of my face. I spin almost motionless as if my head is the only thing moving, yet I am unable to focus on any object. Suddenly the noise returns, and I am no longer spinning. I see the rush of news media approaching in hopes of capturing the best photo or quote of this enormous display of protest. Still I cannot figure out what is being protested. I turn in every direction looking for an explanation for this chaos, and all I receive in return is a shoulder or back turned to me. The riot is getting out of control now, and I see several policemen rushing towards the spectacle. With fear that I may get hurt, I decide to enter the building which stands before me. When the door behind me smacks shut with an echoing, darkness is all I can see. I call out to see if anyone is around, but it appears as though there is no one. The musty smell of this building enters my throat and causes me to gag. I quickly run through an open door in hopes of a change of atmosphere. The smell has changed but the room is still dark, except for a crack of light seeping in from an almost covered skylight above me. Shrieking cries of what I think are infants fill my ears, but after looking in every direction, I see nothing. My curiosity pushes me to explore more of this building; so I move forward and open the door into another room. The room is very well lit, and as I look around I feel as though I have been here before. With no signs as to what this building is, and with no one to ask, I am finding it difficult to recall why I know this place.

Importance of Literature Essay

There are a lot of things that come to mind when a person hears the word literature. Usually, one thinks of a book, story, classical work or some variation of the aforementioned but to ask someone to define the term literature, proves to be a much trickier task. Many are stumped when asked this question. People often answer by giving examples of literary works but fail to actually give an encompassing definition of the term. Welcome to the world of Webster (Dictionary that is). Webster’s Dictionary defines the term literature as the body of written works of a language, period, or culture. This definition seems be broad but continuing on in the definition there was one part that really stood as a more adequate representation of what literature is about. The definition reads as follows; Â…the body of written work produced by scholars or researchers in a given field. This particular definition seems to hit at the core of literature; scholarship and specialization. Some feel that that all written works are forms of literature. I contend that a true work of literature must be written by a person who has studied a given field (specialization) and produced a work that allows the reader to gain some form of a lesson or viewpoint (scholarship), whether agreeing with the writer or taking an opposing stance of the information set fourth in the work. This is not to say that these types of works do not have any entertainment value but they have a type of entertainment that wraps the lesson, argument or viewpoint in an engaging style rather than being force-fed the authors’ stance. A true work of literature should evoke some form of discussion on the works main point. A work of literature needs all of the above, not only to be called a true work of literature but to also cement its place in history, which is the last piece of the puzzle when defining the term. Literature stands the test of time and can be discussed by great grandchildren as well as great grandmothers and all those in between. This all goes to say that the importance of literature is its ability to connect  a community known as the human race. Classical works of literature have been translated so that all human beings can share in a great piece, even being translated to an audio, so that those who can not read will not be stopped from participating in the act of community that literature provides. It is amazing that even though some might not share the same culture as others, they could start a discussion around a piece of literature. The literature in this instance acts as a unifier rather than just a book or story, thus proving the power of literature and the overall power of the written word. A true work of literature must have scholarship, specialization, a unifying human element and an entertaining delivery in order to stand the test of time. The points mentioned above give literature criteria on which to be compared. The importance of literature goes far beyond just having â€Å"a good read.† Literature possesses an intangible that can have a great impact on people’s lives. Great works of our time have brought nations together, stopped feuds, healed wounds, and have even taught humans how to be â€Å"human† again. Literature is extremely important and necessary to the growth of this world and for a creation of a global society.

Napoleon and the Italian Campaign of 1796â€1797

The campaign fought by French General Napoleon Bonaparte in Italy in 1796–7 helped end the French Revolutionary Wars in favor of France. But they were arguably more significant for what they did for Napoleon: from one French commander among many, his string of successes established him as one of France’s, and Europe’s, brightest military talents, and revealed a man able to exploit victory for his own political goals. Napoleon showed himself to be not just a great leader on the battlefield but a canny exploiter of propaganda, willing to make his own peace deals for his own benefit. Napoleon Arrives Napoleon was given command of the Army of Italy in March 1796, two days after marrying Josephine. On route to his new base—Nice—he changed the spelling of his name. The Army of Italy was not intended to be the main focus of France in the coming campaign—that was to be Germany—and the Directory  may have been just shunting Napoleon off somewhere he couldn’t cause trouble. While the army was ill-organized and with sinking morale, the idea that the young Napoleon had to win over a force of veterans is exaggerated, with the possible exception of the officers: Napoleon had claimed victory at Toulon and was known to the army. They wanted victory and to many, it seemed like Napoleon was their best chance of getting it, so he was welcomed. However, the army of 40,000 was definitely poorly equipped, hungry, disillusioned, and falling apart, but it was also composed of experienced soldiers who just needed the right leadership and supplies. Napoleon would later highlight how much of a difference he made to the army, how he transformed it, and while he overstated to make his role look better (as ever), he certainly provided what was needed. Promising troops that they would be paid in captured gold was among his cunning tactics to reinvigorate the army, and he soon worked hard to bring in supplies, crack down on deserters, show himself to the men, and impress on all his determination. Conquest Napoleon initially faced two armies, one Austrian and one from Piedmont. If they had united, they would have outnumbered Napoleon, but they were hostile to each other and didn’t. Piedmont was unhappy at being involved and Napoleon resolved to defeat it first. He attacked quickly, turning from one enemy to another, and managed to force Piedmont to leave the war entirely by forcing them on a large retreat, breaking their will to continue, and signing the Treaty of Cherasco. The Austrians retreated, and less than a month after arriving in Italy, Napoleon had Lombardy. At the start of May, Napoleon crossed the Po to chase an Austrian army, defeated their rear-guard at the battle of Lodi, where the French stormed a well-defended bridge head on. It did wonders for Napoleon’s reputation despite it being a skirmish that could have been avoided if Napoleon had waited a few days for the Austrian retreat to continue. Napoleon next took Milan, where he established a republican gove rnment. The effect on the army’s morale was great, but on Napoleon, it was arguably greater: he began to believe he could do remarkable things. Lodi is arguably the starting point of Napoleon’s rise. Napoleon now besieged Mantua but the German part of the French plan had not even begun and Napoleon had to halt. He spent the time intimidating cash and submissions from the rest of Italy. Around $60 million francs in cash, bullion, and jewels had so far been gathered. Art was equally in demand by the conquerors, while rebellions had to be stamped out. Then a new Austrian army under Wurmser marched forth to tackle Napoleon, but he was again able to take advantage of a divided force—Wurmser sent 18,000 men under one subordinate and took 24,000 himself—to win multiple battles. Wurmser attacked again in September, but Napoleon flanked and ravaged him before Wurmser finally managed to merge some of his force with the defenders of Mantua. Another Austrian rescue force split up, and after Napoleon narrowly won at Arcola, he was able to defeat this in two chunks as well. Arcola saw Napoleon take a standard and lead an advance, doing wonders again for his reputation for persona l bravery, if not personal safety. As the Austrians made a new attempt to save Mantua in early 1797, they failed to bring their maximum resources to bear, and Napoleon won the battle of Rivoli in mid-January, halving the Austrians and forcing them into Tyrol. In February 1797, with their army broken by disease, Wurmser and Mantua surrendered. Napoleon had conquered northern Italy. The pope was now induced to buy Napoleon off. Having received reinforcements (he had 40,000 men), he now decided to defeat Austria by invading it but was faced by Archduke Charles. However, Napoleon managed to force him right back—Charles’ morale was low—and after getting to within sixty miles of the enemy capital Vienna, he decided to offer terms. The Austrians had been subjected to a terrible shock, and Napoleon knew he was far from his base, facing Italian rebellion with tired men. As negotiations went on, Napoleon decided he wasn’t finished, and he captured the Republic of Genoa, which transformed into the Ligurian Republic, as well as took parts of Venice. A preliminary treaty—Leoben—was drawn up, annoying the French government as it didn’t clarify the position in the Rhine. The Treaty of Campo Formio, 1797 Although the war was, in theory, between France and Austria, Napoleon negotiated the Treaty of Campo Formio with Austria himself, without listening to his political masters. A coup by three of the directors which remodeled the French executive ended Austrian hopes of splitting France’s executive from its leading General, and they agreed on terms. France kept the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium), conquered states in Italy were transformed into the Cisalpine Republic ruled by France, Venetian Dalmatia was taken by France, the Holy Roman Empire was to be rearranged by France, and Austria had to agree to support France in order to hold Venice. The Cisalpine Republic may have taken the French constitution, but Napoleon dominated it. In 1798, French forces took Rome and Switzerland, turning them into new, revolutionary styled states. Consequences Napoleon’s string of victories thrilled France (and many later commentators), establishing him as the country’s pre-eminent general, a man who had finally ended the war in Europe; an act seemingly impossible for anyone else. It also established Napoleon as a key political figure and redrew the map of Italy. The vast sums of loot sent back to France helped maintain a government increasingly losing fiscal and political control.